Working in VFX

01. The VFX industry today, in numbers

Nobody publishes an official census of VFX, so every number comes with a caveat. These are the best estimates I found, and where they come from.

• $10.8 bnthe global VFX market in 2025, up from $9.7 bn in 2024ResearchAndMarkets, Dec 2025
• 1,000+VFX companies worldwide, with 400 more doing commercialsindustry estimate quoted by A. Tsang
• 100,000+people working in VFX around the worldsame estimate
• 37,000people in the 44 vendors behind the big Hollywood and streaming shows (2022)A. Tsang, from LinkedIn

The shape is a pyramid: a few very large studios employ half of the people on the big shows, a long tail of medium and small studios does the rest, and around a third of compositors work as freelancers or on fixed-term contracts (35% in the salary survey below). Work moves in waves: when a few big films and series are in post at the same time, everyone is hiring; between waves, contracts end.

• VFX market report 2025–2032ResearchAndMarkets: market size and forecast (other reports give different numbers).
• A snapshot of Hollywood VFX studio sizesAdrian Tsang counted the people in 44 vendors from their LinkedIn pages.

02. Your job-hunting kit

Before you write to anyone, get these six things ready. Recruiters look at dozens of candidates a day: if one link is broken or the reel is ten minutes long, they move on to the next one.

• 1A short reelOne to two minutes, best shot first, with breakdowns. My portfolio guide explains everything.
• 2A shot listA PDF or a page: shot by shot, what you did and with which software.
• 3A one-page CVThe role you want as the title, the reel link at the top, credits, software, languages. Details in section CV and cover email.
• 4A LinkedIn profile recruiters can findHeadline, keywords, reel in "Featured", Open to Work for recruiters. See LinkedIn.
• 5A website or ArtStationOne link that holds the reel, the shot list, your CV and your email.
• 6A trackerA spreadsheet: studio, contact, role, date, answer, next follow-up. You'll send dozens of applications: without it you'll lose track.

03. The method: from the first message to the offer

Most of the jobs I got didn't come from a job board: they came from people I had worked with, from a supervisor who remembered me, from a recruiter I'd kept in touch with. Job boards matter for your first job; after that, your network does most of the work. This is the method I suggest to my students:

• 1Get your kit readyReel, shot list, CV, LinkedIn, website and tracker: see the section above, and my portfolio guide for the reel.
• 2Make a list of 30–50 studiosFrom the studios to know, in the cities where you can live. Note the careers page and, if you can find them, the recruiters and the supervisors of your department on LinkedIn.
• 3Use the tracker every dayStudio, contact, role, date sent, answer and when to write again. It's the single most useful tool when you're looking for work.
• 4Apply on the careers page, then write to a personA short message to the recruiter: who you are, what you do, the link to the reel, your availability. Templates in Recruiters.
• 5Follow upNo answer is normal. Write again with a new shot or a new availability date; studios hire when a show starts, not when you write.
• 6Make yourself visibleLinkedIn with "open to work" for recruiters, ArtStation or a website, a post when you finish a project, your name on the credits. Recruiters search by role and software: "Compositor" and "Nuke", "FX TD" and "Houdini", "Lighter" and "Katana".
• 7Keep every contact aliveWhen a contract ends, thank your lead and supervisor and ask if you can write to them. Many of the next jobs come from them.
• 8Say yes to the right first jobRoto, prep, matchmove, a small studio: all good starts. The first credit and the first reference count more than the name on the building. Then check the offer (see The offer).

One warning: a real studio or agency never asks you for money to apply, to "unlock" a job or to take a test. Unpaid tests of more than a few hours are a bad sign too.

04. Don't be shy

The biggest mistake I see in students and juniors is not the reel: it's waiting. Waiting for a job ad, waiting to feel ready, not writing because "they're busy". People in VFX are generally happy to help, and almost everyone got their first job because someone answered a message. So:

• 1Ask for informationWrite to artists at the studios you like: "How did you get in? What do they look for in a junior?" Ten minutes of their time can save you months.
• 2Add recruiters on LinkedInAll of them, for your department and your cities, with a short note. When a show starts, they look at their network first. See Recruiters.
• 3Join the communitiesDiscord servers, forums and groups where artists share work, ask for feedback and post jobs (see below).
• 4Ask for feedback on your reelFrom seniors, leads, teachers. I do it for free: see the end of this page.
• 5Ask for referralsIf a friend works at a studio, ask if they can pass your reel to the right person. Many studios prefer referred candidates, and some pay their staff a bonus for it.
• 6Ask for recommendationsAt the end of every contract, ask your lead and supervisor for a LinkedIn recommendation and if you can give their name as a reference. Do it while they remember your work.
• 7Ask whyIf you're rejected after a test or an interview, ask politely for feedback. Not everyone answers, but those who do give you the most useful advice you'll get.
• 8Help othersAnswer questions, share a tool, review a friend's reel. Networking works both ways, and people remember who helped them.

Communities and Discord servers

There are many Discord servers for VFX artists: general ones with channels for each department, reels and jobs, and others for one software (Nuke, Houdini, Blender, Unreal) or one school. Look for the ones that are active, have clear rules and a channel for feedback. Good places to start:

• VFX Apprentice communityA Discord with free channels on many VFX topics, open to everyone.
• ActionVFX: digital VFX communitiesA list of Discord servers and online groups for VFX artists.
• The RookiesStudents and juniors share their work, studios look at it.
• Animation, VFX and game jobs in 2026What's changing in hiring and how to stay hireable.

05. LinkedIn: a profile recruiters find

In VFX, LinkedIn is where recruiters search for people. They type a role and a software, filter by city, and contact who comes up. If the words aren't in your profile, you don't come up.

• Headline: role, specialty, software, where. For example "Compositor · Nuke · Keying and CG integration · London" or "FX Artist · Houdini · Destruction and pyro".
• Open to Work set to "recruiters only": they see it, your current studio doesn't, and there's no green banner on your photo.
• Featured: your reel and shot list at the top of the profile, the first thing a recruiter clicks.
• Experience: studio, role and the shows you worked on, one line each. Credits are what recruiters scan for.
• Location: the city where you want to work, if you're ready to move there, and "open to relocation" in the About section.
• A real photo, a clear banner (a frame from your reel works well) and an email in the About section.
• Post your work: a breakdown when a show comes out (once it's allowed), a personal project, a new tool. Recruiters notice who is active.
• Connect with the right people: recruiters and talent acquisition at the studios on your list, leads and supervisors of your department, people you studied or worked with.

• LinkedIn Help: Open to WorkHow to tell recruiters you're available, and who can see it.
• Pimp your LinkedIn profile for VFX artistsFive LinkedIn tips for VFX artists, by Susie Kleis.
• How VFX professionals get noticed by recruitersTalent Outpost: headlines, keywords and what recruiters search for.

06. Recruiters: how to find them and write to them

A recruiter's job is to find people for the shows that are starting. They're on your side: if you make their job easy, they remember you. At entry level a job post can get more than a hundred applications, so a direct, well-written message to the right person makes a real difference.

Find them

• On LinkedIn, search the studio name plus "recruiter", "talent acquisition", "talent manager" or "resourcing". Big studios have recruiters per department and per city: write to the one for your role.
• Look at who posts the studio's job ads, and who comments under them.
• At events like FMX or VIEW Conference, recruiters are at the studio booths: bring your reel on your phone.
• Ask friends and former colleagues who work there: a referral from inside is the fastest way in.

Connect, then write

Send a connection request with a short note. Keep it to three lines: who you are, what you do, the link, and what you're asking for. A template you can adapt:

Hi Sarah, I'm a compositor with three years in Nuke, mostly keying and CG integration. I'd love to be considered for [Studio]'s upcoming shows in Montreal: here's my reel and shot list, [link]. I'm available from March and ready to relocate. Thank you!

When you apply to an advertised role, the same message by email works well, with a clear subject:

Subject: Compositor – reel and availability from March
Hello Sarah, I've just applied for the Compositor position (ref. 1234) on your careers page. I have three years of experience in Nuke on series and features, mostly keying, CG integration and cleanup. Reel and shot list: [link]. CV attached as a PDF. I'm available from 3 March and can relocate to Montreal. Kind regards, [name, phone]

Follow up, and what not to do

• No answer is normal. Write again after two or three weeks for an advertised role, after two or three months otherwise, always with something new: a shot, a new availability date.
• Ask about your profile, not "do you have a job?": "Do you see a fit for my profile in your upcoming shows?" is easier to answer.
• Don't send five messages in a week, attach 50 MB files, or write to every recruiter of the same studio at once.
• Accept a no with grace and thank them: the same recruiter will crew the next show.
• Keep them updated when you finish a contract or update the reel: "I'm available again from June" is a perfect message.

• The Rookies: how I got hired in VFXA graduate's guide: messaging recruiters directly, referrals, patience.
• A recruiter on messages and connection requestsWhat helps and what doesn't, from someone who receives them every day.
• Rebelway: how to get hired as a VFX artistAn interview with a recruiter: CV, cover letters, what makes them call.
• Creative Bloq: how to get a job at a big studioThe recruiting team's view, from the time of MPC.

07. CV and cover email

• One page for juniors, two at most for seniors. A recruiter looks at it for a few seconds: put the important things at the top.
• The title is the role you want ("Compositor", "FX Artist"), not "VFX artist, 3D, motion designer and editor".
• Reel link and email at the top, clickable. Name the file "Name-Surname_Compositor_CV.pdf".
• Experience: studio, role, dates, shows. For students: projects, school, the parts you did yourself.
• Software and skills with the words of the job ad: many studios read applications through software that searches for keywords.
• Languages and right to work: say if you have a passport or visa for that country, it's often the first question.
• The cover email: short, specific to that studio and role. Better no cover letter than a generic one, but if the application asks for it, write it.

• befores & afters: what to put in your VFX resumeTen resume tips from an artist who worked at several studios.
• BLT Recruiting: resume tips for VFX artistsFrom a recruiting firm: format, reel link, tailoring each CV.
• bab.la: cover letter phrases in EnglishFor Italian speakers: the standard phrases of a cover letter, Italian to English.

08. Where to apply: job boards and portals

Big studios publish every role on their careers page, through application portals like Workday, SmartRecruiters, Jobvite or Greenhouse. Create an account once, keep your CV and reel link up to date there, and check the status of your applications. Then set alerts on the boards below for your role and your cities.

Start from these two: they list hundreds of open positions from studios around the world, each with the link to apply. Open the Job Board, choose your role and the countries where you can work, sort by date, and check it every week.

• Animation, VFX and games job postingsThe community spreadsheet with the open positions of studios around the world, updated all the time: the first place to look, every week.
• Job Board 2.0The same job postings as a dashboard, maintained by Chris Mayne and updated almost every day: filter by job title, city, country, experience level (internships too), on-site, remote or hybrid, and software.

• VFXjobsThe classic job board for visual effects.
• JobVFXCompositing, FX, lighting and pipeline roles at the big studios.
• LinkedIn JobsSearch your role ("compositor", "FX artist", "lighting TD"…) and set an alert for the cities you want.
• ArtStation JobsStudios post here next to the artists' portfolios.
• The Rookies: jobsJunior roles and internships, near the student work.
• AWN jobsAnimation World Network: animation and VFX jobs.
• SmartRecruiters job searchMany studios use this portal: one account for all your applications.

09. Companies that look for people: Mota and the agencies

Some companies don't make VFX: their job is to find artists for the studios. They're paid by the studio, not by you, and for an experienced artist they can open doors that job boards never see. Send them your reel and your availability, and keep them updated.

• MotaConnects productions with vetted VFX studios and experienced crew. There are no listings: you create a crew profile, and their crewing team contacts you when a role fits. It now includes the recruiter Motus VFX.
• Mota: create your crew profileThe sign-up for artists and supervisors: a person reviews your background and replies.

• Cinematic TalentA VFX recruitment agency for studios in the UK, Europe, North America and Australia, with talent pools for compositors.
• DAXVFX recruitment for London, Vancouver and Europe.
• Mustard FXRecruitment for VFX, games, animation and film in the UK.
• ConnectVFXCompositing jobs collected from the studios' career pages, in one search.

Many studios also keep "talent pools": open applications for each department, read when a show is crewing up. Fill them in, even if there's no open position for you today.

10. Networking and events

Many jobs are filled by people who already know you. Networking in VFX is not about collecting contacts: it's about being someone people remember well, a good colleague, someone who shares, who answers, who helps.

• FMX, Stuttgart

  One of the biggest European events for animation and VFX, with a job fair and studio recruiting talks every spring.

  fmx.de
• VIEW Conference, Turin

  Every October in Turin: talks by supervisors from the big studios, workshops, and the chance to meet them in person.

  viewconference.it
• SIGGRAPH

  The great conference of computer graphics, in North America every summer: research, studios, job fair.

  SIGGRAPH 2026
• Annecy and MIFA

  The animation festival and market, every June: essential if you work in animation.

  annecyfestival.com
• Online

  The Rookies, ArtStation, LinkedIn, Discord servers of schools and tools, and forums: share your work and help others.

  The Rookies
• Mentoring

  ACCESS:VFX runs mentoring and events; many seniors give reel reviews. I do too, for free: see the end of this page.

  ACCESS:VFX

• Cartoon Brew: your guide to FMXWhat happens there and why it's worth going, especially for the job fair.
• My First Job in Film: VFX runnerThe runner role as a foot in the door of a VFX studio.

11. Associations to join

Associations organise events, screenings, talks and mentoring, and they're one of the easiest ways to meet people from other studios. Many have student or junior memberships.

• Visual Effects Society (VES)The international association of VFX professionals, with local sections (London, Montreal, Vancouver, Germany, France, Australia, New Zealand, India…), events and mentoring.
• AVFX: Associazione Effetti VisiviThe Italian association of VFX, CGI and animation professionals, companies and schools: AVFX Festival in Rome and a student award.
• ACM SIGGRAPHThe computer graphics community, with local chapters around the world.
• UK Screen AllianceThe trade association of UK VFX, animation and post studios.
• Animation & VFX Union (UK)The Bectu branch for animation and VFX workers.
• IATSE VFX UnionVFX workers in the US and Canada.
• Women in AnimationMentoring, events and advocacy for women in animation and VFX.
• Animated Women UKSupporting women in VFX and animation in the UK.
• ACCESS:VFXInclusion and diversity in VFX, animation and games, with mentoring.

12. Women in the industry

Women are still under-represented in VFX, especially in technical and supervising roles, but things are changing: more women lead studios, supervise shows and run departments, and there are organisations and events dedicated to supporting them. If you're a woman starting out, these are good places to find mentors, role models and people who've been through the same path.

• Women in Animation

  An international organisation with a mentoring programme running since 2014, panels and local chapters.

  womeninanimation.org
• Animated Women UK

  A network that supports women working in VFX and animation in the UK, with events and mentoring.

  animatedwomenuk.com
• VIEW Conference

  In Turin, panels on women in animation, VFX and virtual production are a fixed part of the programme, with women who lead studios like ILM, Sony Pictures Imageworks and Skydance Animation.

  Women in Animation at VIEW
• ACCESS:VFX

  Mentoring and events for everyone who is under-represented in VFX, animation and games.

  accessvfx.org

• VIEW Conference: Women in Animation panelThe panel held every year at VIEW in Turin.
• AWN: Holly Edwards, Michelle Grady and Janet Lewin at VIEWLeaders of Skydance Animation, Sony Pictures Imageworks and ILM in the 2026 lineup.

13. The test and the interview

Usually there are two or three steps: a call with the recruiter, sometimes a test, then an interview with the lead or the supervisor of the department. Each one has its own goal.

• Step 1The call with the recruiterAvailability, right to work, salary or rate expectations, notice period, relocation. Have a number ready (see salaries) and your start date.
• Step 2The testA shot to finish in a given time. Read the brief twice, ask questions if something isn't clear, deliver on time with a clean, labelled script and the render. Quality over quantity: a perfect key beats five half-done things.
• Step 3The interview with the lead or supervisorThey'll go through your reel: for each shot, what you did, what was hard, how you solved it, what you'd do better. Then how you work with notes, deadlines and the team.

Prepare

• Rewatch your reel and be ready to talk about every shot for two minutes: the problem, your approach, the nodes or tools you used.
• Revise the basics of your department: for comp, premultiplication, merge operations, linear light, colour spaces, grain, edges.
• Look up the studio's recent shows and what they did on them.
• For video calls, test camera, microphone and connection before, and keep your reel ready to share.
• Say "I don't know, but I would look for it like this" instead of inventing: supervisors appreciate honesty much more than bluffing.

Questions to ask them

• Which show would I work on, and how long is the contract?
• How big is the team, and who would I report to?
• How are notes and dailies organised? Is there a mentor for juniors?
• How does overtime work, and is it paid?
• Is it on site, remote or hybrid?

About tests: a test of a few hours is normal, especially for juniors. A test of several days, or one that looks like real production work, should be paid. You can politely ask about it.

• CG Spectrum: demo reel and interview tipsHow to prepare the reel and the interview for a VFX job.
• The Rookies: what VFX employers look forThe qualities studios check when they select juniors and interns.
• CG Spectrum: 5 tips to start a VFX careerReel, school, network and attitude.

14. The offer: what to check and how to negotiate

When the offer arrives, don't say yes on the phone: thank them, ask for it in writing, and answer within a day or two. It's normal, and nobody will withdraw an offer because you read it.

Read it carefully

• Pay: yearly salary or day/week rate, gross, and when it's paid.
• Contract: start and end date, probation, notice period on both sides, what happens if the show is extended or cancelled.
• Hours and overtime: hours per week, overtime rate or time off, weekends.
• Holidays, sick days, pension, health insurance.
• Relocation and visa: flights, temporary housing, visa costs and who handles them.
• Title and credit: your role on the contract and in the film credits.

Negotiate

• Know your number before the call: the salary tables on this page, the Bectu rate card, colleagues in the same city.
• Ask for their range first, if you can. If you have to say a number, give a precise one, slightly above what you want.
• Justify it with your experience and the shots you can do, not with your expenses.
• If the salary can't move, negotiate other things: a higher title, a salary review after six months, relocation, start date, remote days.
• A competing offer is the strongest argument, but only mention it if it's real.
• Stay kind: you'll work with these people tomorrow. A polite counter-offer is normal; an ultimatum is not.
• For freelancers: day rate, overtime rate, kit fee if you use your own computer, payment terms, and a written end date.

If you decide to say no, say it quickly and kindly, and thank them: they might call you for the next show.

• Rebelway: how to land a VFX jobSalaries, software, tips and tricks for getting a VFX job.
• Mattepaint: how to work out your freelance rateDay rate, lump sums and how to quote a job.
• Bectu rate card 2025The numbers to bring to a negotiation in the UK.

15. Salaries: every role, junior to lead

Two sources, both based on what artists declare. The first is the UK union's rate card for 2025, the most recent and careful survey I know, for all roles in animation and VFX. The second is the anonymous community survey "VFX Salaries", with more than 3,000 answers since 2018: I grouped the answers by department and city and calculated the medians myself.

United Kingdom, 2025: employees (PAYE), per year

By department: mid and senior, base salary per year

The differences between departments are smaller than the differences between cities: a senior in any department earns roughly the same in the same studio, with FX, pipeline and lighting a little above and production a little below. Juniors start in a narrow band everywhere: about £26,000–34,000 in London, whatever the department. Supervisors' salaries vary the most, with the show and the studio.

Compositors in more cities: base salary per year, in local currency

Medians of 661 compositors who answered the "VFX Salaries" survey between 2019 and 2026, base pay without overtime, rounded to the thousand; "–" where fewer than five people answered. Older answers pull the numbers down a little: the UK rate card above is more recent. In Italy only a handful of compositors answered: juniors around €1,300–1,500 a month.

How to read these numbers: compare them with the cost of living (Vancouver and London are expensive cities), and look at what comes with the salary: paid overtime, pension, health insurance, holidays. The London figures by years in VFX tell the same story as the rate card: about £27,500 in the first two years, £38,000 at three to five, £54,000 at six to nine, £69,000 after ten.

• Bectu: Animation and VFX rate card 2025UK salaries and freelance day rates by experience.
• VFX Salaries surveyThousands of anonymous answers: role, city, pay, overtime. Add yours.
• AVU studio listUK studios with notes on overtime and working conditions.

16. Freelance: how much to charge

In VFX "freelance" usually means a contract with a studio for a show, paid by the day or the week, often on site or remote in the same country; less often, shots you do for a small client from home. Either way the question is the same: what's my day rate?

For compositors the "VFX Salaries" survey gives similar medians for freelancers paid by the day: about £300 for a senior in London, C$336 for a mid and C$368–440 for a senior in Vancouver and Montreal, US$400 for a mid and US$440 for a senior in Los Angeles.

Work out your own rate

• Start from the salary of an employee at your level in your city (the tables above).
• Divide by the days you'll really bill: not 260 but around 200, once you remove holidays, bank holidays, sick days and the weeks between contracts.
• Add what a studio would pay for you: pension, holidays, equipment, software, an accountant, insurance: usually 10–30% more.
• Example: a London senior at £59,200 a year ÷ 200 days = £296; plus 15% = about £340 a day, right on the rate card median for 7–9 years.
• Check the market: ask colleagues, read the rate card, and never quote a rate before you know the length of the contract, the hours, and whether overtime is paid.

Also check how you'll be paid: as an employee on a fixed-term contract, as self-employed, or through your own company (in the UK, read about IR35; in Italy, ask a commercialista about the partita IVA and its regimes). Agree payment terms in writing (30 days is common) and always send an invoice with the dates you worked.

• Mota: the independent VFX careerArticles for senior freelancers: rate, gaps between contracts, where the work is going.
• ITJobsWatch: VFX contract rates in LondonDay rates quoted in contract adverts (a small sample).

17. The cost of living in VFX cities

A salary means little without the cost of living of the city. These are the average monthly costs for one person, from Numbeo, all in euros so you can compare them: rent of a one-bedroom flat outside the centre, plus everything else (food, transport, bills, going out).

Numbeo, data updated in October 2026, converted to euros. "Average net salary" is for all jobs in the city, not VFX: it helps to understand the local cost of living.

A simple rule: rent should stay below a third of your net salary. In London and Los Angeles, many juniors share a flat for the first years; in Montreal, Prague or Rome the same salary goes much further.

• Numbeo: cost of livingCompare any two cities: rent, food, transport, salaries.

Visas and work permits are in the next section: Visas.

18. Visas: Canada, Australia, UK, US, and how to be faster

For many people the visa, not the reel, is the real obstacle to the first job abroad. Studios hire juniors much more easily when they already have the right to work in the country, because sponsoring a visa costs time and money. These are the main routes; always check the official page, because rules and age limits change.

Working holiday visas: the quickest way in when you're young

• Canada: International Experience Canada

  An open work permit for young people: Italian citizens can apply up to age 35, according to most guides. You create a profile and enter a pool; invitations are random, so apply as soon as the season opens. Once invited, you have 10 days to start the application and 20 to submit it. You'll need savings (about CAD 2,500) and health insurance.

  canada.ca: IEC
• Australia: Working Holiday (subclass 417)

  For people aged 18 to 30, or up to 35 for some countries: check the age limit for your passport on the official page. Italy is one of the eligible countries. You apply online, without a job offer.

  homeaffairs.gov.au: 417
• New Zealand: Italy Working Holiday

  For Italian citizens aged 18 to 30: an online application, no job offer needed, and savings of at least NZD 4,200. A way to get to Wellington and Wētā FX.

  immigration.govt.nz
• UK: Youth Mobility Scheme

  Two years in the UK for young people from a list of countries: check if your passport is on it. If not, you'll need a visa sponsored by the studio.

  gov.uk: Youth Mobility

Visas sponsored by a studio

• UK, Skilled Worker visa: the studio must be a licensed sponsor; most big London studios are. The Global Talent visa is for established or emerging leaders: it needs an endorsement instead of a sponsor.
• Canada: a work permit tied to a job offer, often after a labour market assessment. The Global Talent Stream aims to process permits in two weeks, but it's employer-driven and limited to a list of occupations: ask the studio.
• US: the O-1B visa is the usual route for VFX artists with strong credits (awards, important shows, letters from supervisors); it needs a sponsor but there's no lottery. The H-1B goes through a yearly lottery.
• EU citizens can work in any EU country without a visa.

How to make it faster

• Apply for a working holiday before you have a job: with an open work permit in hand, you can say "I can start next week", and that changes everything for a recruiter.
• Mind the age limits: apply a year before your last eligible birthday, not the month before.
• Target the studios that sponsor: big studios have immigration teams and do it every month; small studios rarely can.
• Prepare the documents early: passport valid for years, criminal record certificates, translated degrees, references, a CV with credits.
• For O-1 or Global Talent, collect evidence from your first credit: IMDb, awards, press, breakdowns, letters from supervisors.
• Say it clearly in your application: "I hold a Canadian open work permit until 2028" is the best first line of a cover email.

• Canada: Global Talent StreamThe fast-track work permit, for employers.
• Canada: work in CanadaAll the work permits, the official page.
• UK: Skilled Worker visaThe visa most VFX studios sponsor in the UK.
• UK: Global Talent visaFor leaders and emerging leaders, with an endorsement instead of a sponsor.
• US: O-1 visaExtraordinary ability or achievement: the official page.
• Australia: working in AustraliaAll the work visas, the official page.
• Your Europe: working abroadWorking in another EU country as an EU citizen.

19. Working in Italy

Italy has a smaller VFX market than the UK or Canada, and it pays less, but it's growing, and it's where many of us started. The work is mostly in Milan (advertising and post, and the biggest studios), Rome (film and TV), and Turin (games and animation), with smaller studios in Bologna, Treviso, Palermo and elsewhere, and many freelancers working remotely, also for studios abroad.

Studios

• EDI Effetti Digitali ItalianiMilan and Rome: one of the biggest Italian studios, films, series and ads for international clients.
• Frame by FrameRome: post-production and VFX for film and TV since 1990; its VFX supervisor won the David di Donatello for Siccità (2023).
• 22DogsMilan: VFX for film, TV and advertising. Opens its careers page.
• ChromaticaRome: visual effects for film and series.
• Square Post ProductionMilan: post-production and VFX, mostly advertising.
• Proxima MilanoMilan: VFX and AI for film and advertising.
• StorytellerMilan: digital effects for film and TV.
• UbikMilan: visual effects and post-production for ads, film and TV.
• RainbowRome and Loreto: animation and CGI (Winx Club, 44 Cats).

Small studios: how to get in

• Many small studios never publish job ads: they hire people they know or who write to them at the right time. Spontaneous applications, with a reel made for that studio's kind of work, work better than in big studios.
• Find them in the credits of Italian films, series and ads, in the AVFX member list, at VIEW Conference and at the AVFX Festival, and on LinkedIn by searching "VFX" or "post produzione" plus the city.
• Call or visit: in Italy, a phone call or a coffee often works better than an email. Ask for the VFX supervisor or the head of post.
• Be ready to do a bit of everything: in a small studio a compositor may also do roto, tracking, some 3D and grading. It's the best school there is.
• Advertising is the biggest market, with short deadlines and direct contact with clients: Flame and Nuke, often Unreal and Blender.
• Contracts: many artists work as freelancers with a partita IVA, or on fixed-term contracts per project. Ask a commercialista before your first invoice.

Salaries in Italy

Indicative figures for 3D and VFX artists, net per month: about €1,200–1,500 for a junior, €1,600–2,200 mid-level, €2,500–3,500 senior; freelance seniors around €200–500 a day. For compositors specifically: €1,200–1,600 junior, €2,200–3,000 senior. These come from a 2026 summary of Glassdoor and Jooble data by an Italian CGI school, and they match the few Italian answers in the VFX Salaries survey. Compare them with the cost of living in Milan and Rome in the section above.

• AVFX: Associazione Effetti VisiviThe Italian VFX association: festival, student award, members.
• AVFX Festival, RomeThe festival of visual effects, every spring in Rome.
• VIEW Conference, TurinEvery October: talks, workshops and the international studios in Italy.
• Lavorare nella CGI in ItaliaWhere the work is in Italy, the studios and the skills they ask for (Shortcut).
• Stipendi dei 3D artist in Italia, 2026Salaries by role, level and city (Shortcut).

20. AI: the companies and how to apply

Generative AI is creating a new kind of company next to the VFX studios: AI-native film studios, companies that build AI video tools, and research labs inside the big studios. They hire people who know images, cameras, light and storytelling, which means VFX artists, often together with Python and ComfyUI skills. Some of these companies are controversial in the industry, for how their models were trained: read about them before you apply, and decide what you're comfortable with.

AI studios and the AI arms of VFX groups

• Brahma AIThe AI company of the DNEG group (Prime Focus): an AI content platform with photoreal digital humans (ATMAN) and lip-synced voice localisation (VAANI). In 2025 it acquired Metaphysic, the company behind the AI de-aging in Here. Opens its careers page.

• Eyeline (Netflix)Netflix's VFX company and its research lab for virtual production and generative AI.
• MARZToronto: a VFX studio for premium TV series, known for its AI de-aging tool.
• Utopai Studios"Human-directed, AI-powered": a studio with its own video model for long-form storytelling.
• Secret LevelAn entertainment studio powered by AI: trailers, ads and series.
• Staircase StudiosA film studio built around AI tools.
• MoonvalleyAn AI research company building a video model for filmmakers.
• ToonstarAnimation made with AI tools.

Digital humans, faces and voices

• FlawlessAI-assisted performance editing: dialogue and lip-sync after the shoot.
• Deep VoodooAI face and performance work for film and TV.
• SynthesiaAI video avatars and digital presenters.
• RespeecherAI voice for studios and media productions.
• DeepdubAI dubbing and localisation for film and TV.
• HedraModels that generate characters and video, and the platform to run them.

Video, image and 3D models

• RunwayAI video generation and editing, used in ads and films.
• Luma AIVideo models and 3D capture.
• Lightricks (LTX Studio)The LTX video models and LTX Studio for AI production.
• PikaAI video generation.
• Stability AIOpen image and video models.
• GenmoA research lab building open video models (Mochi).
• HiggsfieldAn AI creative suite for images, video and voice.
• KreaReal-time AI image and video tools for creatives.
• OdysseyAn AI lab building world models that learn to simulate the world.
• KaedimAI-powered 3D asset production for studios.

AI tools for VFX, animation and virtual production

• ComfyThe company behind ComfyUI, the node-based tool many VFX artists use for AI.
• BeebleAI relighting and roto for filmmakers.
• Autodesk Flow StudioThe former Wonder Dynamics: CG characters in live action with AI.
• Move AIMarkerless motion capture from video.
• CascadeurAI-assisted keyframe animation.
• CuebricGenerative AI for pre-production and virtual production backgrounds.

• Broadcast: DNEG Group launches Brahma AIWhat Brahma is and how it fits in the DNEG group.
• Animation Magazine: Brahma acquires MetaphysicThe 2025 deal that brought Metaphysic into Brahma.

How to apply

• The roles: AI artist, creative technologist, generative compositor, pipeline TD, workflow designer, research engineer. Read the job ads: many ask for "VFX or film experience".
• Show both sides: a reel with classic VFX shots and shots where you used AI tools, with a breakdown of what was generated and what you did by hand.
• Know the tools: ComfyUI, the main video models, Python, and how to bring AI output into Nuke with proper colour, grain and edges (see the AI section of my compositing guide).
• Apply on their careers pages: they're young companies, often hiring remote, through portals like Ashby or Greenhouse. A short message to a founder or a team lead on LinkedIn or X often gets answered.
• Keep your VFX craft: the people these companies need most are the ones who can tell when an image is wrong, and fix it.

21. Every role in a VFX studio

A shot passes through many hands before it reaches the screen. Every department below hires juniors, seniors and leads, and every one has its own tools and its own reel. If you're not sure which one is yours, look at what you enjoy doing for hours without noticing the time.

• Previs, concept and on set

  Previs and postvis artists plan the shots with rough 3D; concept artists design the look; on-set VFX teams collect HDRIs, lens grids, measurements and references.

  Maya · Unreal · Photoshop · cameras
• Matchmove and layout

  Rebuild the real camera and the movement of actors and objects, so CG can be placed in the plate; layout sets up the CG cameras and the scene.

  3DEqualizer · PFTrack · SynthEyes · Maya
• Modelling and texturing

  Build the assets, from a screw to a city: the shape, then the surfaces, with photographic detail.

  Maya · ZBrush · Houdini · Mari · Substance
• Rigging and CFX

  Riggers give an asset its skeleton and controls; creature FX simulate muscles, skin, cloth and hair.

  Maya · Houdini
• Animation

  Characters, creatures, vehicles and crowds: performance, weight and timing.

  Maya · MotionBuilder
• FX and simulation

  Fire, smoke, water, destruction, magic: everything simulated. The most technical of the artist roles.

  Houdini
• Lighting and lookdev

  Lookdev creates the materials; lighters light the CG to match the plate and render the passes for comp.

  Katana · Houdini Solaris · RenderMan · Arnold · V-Ray
• Environments and DMP

  Matte paintings, digital sets and set extensions, from 2.5D projections to full 3D worlds.

  Photoshop · Nuke · Houdini · Unreal
• Roto, paint and prep

  Mattes, clean plates, rig and marker removal: the base every comp is built on.

  Silhouette · Nuke · Mocha
• Compositing

  Puts everything together into the final image. Everything a compositor needs is in my compositing guide.

  Nuke · Flame (ads)
• Pipeline, tools and R&D

  Developers and TDs write the tools and the pipeline that let hundreds of artists work on the same show.

  Python · C++ · USD · ShotGrid / ftrack
• Production and editorial

  Coordinators, producers and VFX editors: bids, schedules, notes, deliveries, the cut.

  ftrack · ShotGrid · Excel · Avid
• Real-time and virtual production

  Unreal environments for LED volumes and previs, where VFX meets the shoot.

  Unreal Engine
• Supervision

  CG, FX and comp supervisors lead a department on a show; VFX supervisors lead the whole show with the client.

  all of the above

Generalists do several of these jobs at once, especially in commercials and small studios. In big studios you specialise; in small ones you learn the whole chain. Both are good: many seniors started as generalists and then chose one department.

22. The career ladder

Titles change from studio to studio, and from department to department, but the steps are the same everywhere. The years are typical, not rules: some people become seniors in five years, others never want to lead and stay brilliant seniors all their life.

• 0–1 yrEntry rolesRoto and prep, matchmove, render wrangling, production runner or assistant: many careers start here.
• 0–2 yrsJunior artistSimple shots or assets and templates, under the eye of a lead.
• 2–5 yrsArtist (mid)Full shots or assets on your own, notes from the supervisor.
• 5+ yrsSenior artistThe hardest shots, the look of a sequence, helping juniors.
• 8+ yrsLeadA team and a sequence: setups, templates, consistency, reviews.
• 10+ yrsSupervisorCG, FX or comp supervisor for a department, then VFX supervisor for the whole show.

Sideways moves are possible at every step: from comp to pipeline (if you like Python), from modelling to lookdev, from FX to lighting, from any department to production or supervision. What moves you up is not only the software: it's reliability, hitting deadlines, taking notes well, and making the work around yours look better.

23. The studios to know

This is not a ranking, it's a starting list for your applications. Each card opens the studio's careers page (or its home page when it has none): bookmark the ones you like and check them every few weeks.

The biggest: thousands of people, offices in several countries

• DNEGLondon, Canada and India: films and series, one of the largest studios in the world.
• Industrial Light & MagicLucasfilm's studio: San Francisco, Vancouver, London, Sydney, Mumbai.
• FramestoreLondon, Montreal, Mumbai and the US: films, series and ads.
• Wētā FXWellington, with studios in Vancouver and Melbourne.
• Sony Pictures ImageworksSony's VFX and animation studio, based in Vancouver.
• Digital DomainLos Angeles, Canada and India: films, series and digital humans.
• EyelineNetflix's VFX company, with what was Scanline: VFX, virtual production and research.
• Rodeo FXMontreal, Quebec City and Toronto: films, series and ads.

Large and mid-size studios

• CinesiteLondon, Montreal and Vancouver; its group includes Image Engine and Trixter.
• Image EngineVancouver: creatures and high-end series.
• TrixterMunich and Berlin: Marvel films and series.
• RISEBerlin, Munich, Stuttgart, Cologne: one of the biggest studios in Germany.
• The YardParis and Montreal: films and series.
• BUFParis: one of the historic French studios.
• UPPPrague: VFX and post for international productions.
• El RanchitoMadrid and Barcelona: films and series.
• Important Looking PiratesStockholm: VFX and animation.
• Goodbye KansasStockholm: cinematics, VFX and real-time.
• Union VFXLondon: invisible effects for films and series.
• Automatik VFXA studio in London and Germany.
• Vine FXA London studio for series and films.
• Milk VFXUK: films and high-end series.
• Ghost VFXStreamland Media's VFX studio, in Europe and North America.
• HybrideQuebec: films and series.
• Rising Sun PicturesAdelaide: films and series.
• Crafty ApesStudios across the US and Canada.
• FOLKSThe group born from FuseFX and its studios.
• The MillRelaunched by TransPerfect in 2025, now with MPC Paris and Liège.
• JFXThe London team that was Jellyfish Pictures.

Commercials, cinematics and short form

• Electric Theatre CollectiveLondon: VFX for commercials and music videos.
• Goodbye KansasGame trailers and cinematics.
• Proxima MilanoMilan: VFX and AI for film and advertising.

Studios in Italy, including the small ones, are in their own section: Working in Italy.

India and Asia

• BOT VFXIndia and the US: roto, prep and compositing for the big studios.
• Phantom FXChennai and other Indian cities: VFX and animation.
• Dexter StudiosSeoul: the largest VFX studio in Korea.

A good habit: when a film or series you love comes out, read the VFX credits at the end, or the vendor list on The Art of VFX, and add the studios you didn't know to your list.

24. Where the work is, and why

VFX follows tax credits. Governments pay back a share of what a production spends locally, so the films go where the rebate is highest, and the studios open offices there. That's why the same studio has branches in London, Montreal, Vancouver and Mumbai, and why moving to a hub is still the fastest way to get your first job.

• United Kingdom

  London is the biggest hub in Europe: DNEG, Framestore, ILM, Cinesite, Union, Automatik and many small studios. The 2025 tax relief on VFX was designed to bring work back.

  London · also Manchester, Bristol
• Canada

  Federal and provincial credits made Montreal and Vancouver two of the biggest hubs in the world, with Toronto close behind.

  Montreal · Vancouver · Toronto
• United States

  Los Angeles keeps the supervisors, the clients and many studios, but a lot of artist work now goes to Canada, the UK and India.

  Los Angeles · New York · San Francisco
• Australia and New Zealand

  Wētā FX in Wellington, and studios in Sydney, Melbourne and Adelaide that grew thanks to generous offsets.

  Wellington · Sydney · Melbourne · Adelaide
• India

  The fastest-growing hub: big studios have thousands of people there, from roto and prep to full shots.

  Mumbai · Bangalore · Chennai · Hyderabad
• Europe

  Many mid-size studios with national funds and credits: Germany, France, Spain, the Czech Republic, Sweden, Italy.

  Munich · Berlin · Paris · Madrid · Prague · Stockholm · Milan · Rome

About remote work: since 2020 many studios hire remote artists, but usually only inside the same country, because the tax credit is paid on work done there. A studio in Montreal can hire you remotely from Quebec, not from Italy. If you want to work for a hub, in most cases you need to live there, and for your first job you'll probably need to move.

• UK Screen Alliance: the VFX tax relief upliftWhat changed in 2025 for VFX in the UK.
• UK Screen Alliance directoryThe VFX, animation and post companies in the UK.

25. Kinds of companies

• Feature film and episodic

  Long shows, big teams, departments and a strict pipeline. The best place to learn a craft very well.

  DNEG, Framestore, ILM, Wētā FX
• Commercials and music videos

  Short deadlines, small teams, Flame and Nuke, direct contact with clients. You learn speed and taste.

  Electric Theatre, The Mill
• Animation

  Compositing for CG features: lighting and comp often work as one department.

  Sony Imageworks, Cinesite
• Games and cinematics

  Trailers and cinematics, and more and more real-time work in Unreal.

  Goodbye Kansas
• Outsourcing

  Roto, prep and paint for the big studios. Many compositors start here, especially in India.

  BOT VFX, Phantom FX
• In-house and virtual production

  Studios owned by streamers and film studios, and LED volumes on set, where comp skills meet the shoot.

  Eyeline, ILM StageCraft

26. How big the studios are

In December 2022 Adrian Tsang took a sample of big productions (Andor, Stranger Things, Rings of Power, Black Panther 2, The Mandalorian…), listed the vendors in the credits and looked up their size on LinkedIn. He grouped them like this: uber studios with more than 2,000 people, large with more than 500, medium under 500, small under 100. Four uber studios employed more than half of all the people he counted.

Take the numbers as orders of magnitude, not as a census: LinkedIn counts offices in every country, support staff and people who left. They're still useful to understand the difference between a studio of 6,000 people, where you'll be one of 200 compositors on a show, and a studio of 150, where you'll do a bit of everything and talk to the supervisor every day. Both are good places to learn, in different ways.

27. What changed since 2022

The last three years were the hardest the industry has seen in a long time. Not because there's less VFX on screen, but because of strikes, cuts in streaming budgets, studios bringing work in-house and work moving where tax credits are higher.

• 2023The writers' and actors' strikes in Hollywood stop production for months: fewer shoots, fewer shots to post a few months later.
• 2024DNEG lays off hundreds of artists; Axis Studios in Glasgow closes after 24 years, with 162 people laid off.
• Feb 2025Technicolor Group collapses and takes down MPC, The Mill and Mikros Animation (Mikros is then bought by Rodeo FX).
• Mar 2025Jellyfish Pictures in London goes into administration; part of the team restarts as JFX in June.
• 2025The UK raises its tax relief on VFX spending: VFX costs are no longer capped at 80% of the budget, to bring work back to British studios.
• Oct 2025The Mill, bought by TransPerfect in April, relaunches. Netflix merges Scanline into Eyeline, its VFX, virtual production and AI company.
• Mar 2026Sony announces it will wind down Pixomondo after the current shows, moving part of the work into Sony Pictures Imageworks.
• Jun 2026MPC's Paris and Liège studios are folded into The Mill.

What it means for you: big names can disappear, so don't build your career on one studio; keep your reel and your contacts up to date even when you have a job; and learn the parts of the job that are growing, like virtual production, USD and machine-learning tools (see my compositing guide).

• Creative Bloq: Technicolor's closureMPC, The Mill and Mikros, and what it says about the industry.
• Cartoon Brew: Sony winds down PixomondoMarch 2026, and the move towards in-house VFX.
• IBC: Netflix merges Scanline and EyelineVFX, virtual production and research under one name.
• Deadline: Jellyfish Pictures suspends operationsMarch 2025.
• Axis Studios shuts downGame Developer, on the Glasgow studio.
• Studio MorgueAn archive of VFX, animation and post studios that closed, merged or disappeared.

28. Studios that closed, and when

Unfortunately this list keeps growing. Behind every line there are hundreds of artists who lost their job, often from one day to the next, and some of the best films of the last twenty years. I keep it here because it's part of the industry you're entering, and because it explains why a stable career in VFX is built on your skills and your network, not on one company.

A selection of VFX studios from Studio Morgue, which documents each closure with its sources. Dates are when the closure happened or was announced.

• Studio MorgueThe full archive of closed VFX, animation and post studios, with filters and sources.
• Rhythm & HuesThe story of the studio, and of its bankruptcy in 2013.

29. Contracts, overtime and unions

The same salary survey asks artists how they feel about the job, and the answers are worth reading before you sign:

• 64%like their career (8 or more out of 10)
• 37%are happy with the hours they work
• 44%get paid for overtime
• 76%support a union for VFX workers

All roles, answers from 2019 to 2026 of the "VFX Salaries" survey.

Before you sign, check

• Start and end date, and the notice period on both sides.
• Hours per week, and how overtime is paid: money, time off, or nothing.
• Holidays, sick days, pension, and who pays for relocation and visa.
• Remote or on site, and the equipment you'll use.
• Your credit on the film, and if you can show the shots in your reel (and when).

• Animation & VFX Union (UK)The Bectu branch for animation and VFX workers.
• IATSE VFX UnionThe union for VFX workers in the US and Canada.
• ACCESS:VFXA non-profit for inclusion and diversity, with mentoring and events.

30. Data, lists and news

To follow the industry, which studio is growing, which show is crewing up, who closed:

• befores & aftersVFX news and breakdowns, every day.
• Cartoon BrewAnimation and VFX news, including the business side.
• VFX VoiceThe magazine of the Visual Effects Society.
• The Art of VFXInterviews with supervisors, and which studios worked on which film.
• fxguideIn-depth articles and podcasts on VFX technology.
• Studio MorgueStudios that closed or merged, to know where people went.